Jump to content

Great Rites Controversy

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the Ming dynasty political dispute. For the later Qing dynasty dispute involving Catholic missionaries, see Chinese Rites Controversy.
Great Rites Controversy
Traditional Chinese大禮議
Simplified Chinese大礼议
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinDàlǐyì

The Great Rites Controversy, which took place from 1521 to 1524 in the Ming dynasty of China, was a dispute between the Jiajing Emperor and his grand secretaries, who were supported by most officials. The disagreement centered around the status of the emperor's parents. In 1521, the childless Zhengde Emperor died and was succeeded by his cousin, the Jiajing Emperor. The grand secretaries, led by Yang Tinghe, and most officials advocated for the posthumous adoption of the Jiajing Emperor by the Hongzhi Emperor, who was the father of the Zhengde Emperor and had been deceased for almost two decades. This would have made the Jiajing Emperor the younger brother of his predecessor. The Jiajing Emperor refused the adoption and instead demanded that his parents be posthumously granted imperial rank. This disagreement dragged on for some time until the emperor ultimately resolved it by forcing Yang Tinghe to resign and imprisoning, beating, or exiling other opponents to the outskirts of the empire.

Background

[edit]

On 20 April 1521, the Zhengde Emperor, the 11th emperor of the Ming dynasty, died without a direct heir. As a result, his young cousin Zhu Houcong, who was born in 1507, became the new emperor, known as the Jiajing Emperor. Zhu Houzong was the son of Zhu Youyuan, Prince of Xing, who died in 1519. Zhu Youyuan was the younger brother of the Hongzhi Emperor and the uncle of the Zhengde Emperor. Zhu Houcong installation as emperor was decided by Senior Grand Secretary Yang Tinghe and Empress Dowager Zhang, who was the widow of Hongzhi Emperor and the mother of the Zhengde Emprror. This decision was supported by existing ministers and officials who were concerned about potential disputes over the throne.[1]

Zhu Houcong resided in his estate in Anlu, located in central China. On the day of the emperor's died, Yang Tinghe, with the backing of the eunuchs from the Directorate of Ceremonial and Empress Dowager Zhang, issued an edict inviting the prince to Beijing to take the throne.[2]

On 7 May, Zhu Houcong was visited by a delegation in Anlu, who informed him of Empress Dowager Zhang's edict. He agreed to ascend the throne and set off for Beijing.[3] On 26 May, when he was only 30 km away from the city, officials from the Ministry of Rites informed him of the plans for further action, and the first disputes arose. Zhu Houcong insisted on entering the city through the main gate as emperor, rather than the side gate as prince. Despite the insistence of Yang Tinghe, who personally arrived at the suburbs, Zhu Houcong did not yield.[4] He was able to secure his entry into the city with imperial honors on 27 May 1521, and on the same day, he ceremoniously ascended the throne.[3]

Yang Tinghe insisted that the new emperor be officially adopted by the Hongzhi Emperor in order to establish his legitimacy as the younger brother of the late Zhengde Emperor.[5] This adoption would ensure an unbroken imperial lineage and give the Jiajing Emperor's accession a sense of legitimacy and legality.[6] The Jiajing Emperor's father, Zhu Youyuan, was not the son of the empress but rather the son of the concubine, which meant he had no rightful claim to the throne.[7]

Yang believed that the ceremonies to honor the adoptive imperial father were a matter of state and therefore more important than the family issue of honoring the Jiajing Emperor's biological father. Yang Tinghe underestimated the emperor's feelings for his father and failed to consider them when making his demands.[6] The emperor ultimately rejected the adoption because he did not want to declare his parents as uncle and aunt.[5]

Controversy

[edit]

1521–1522

[edit]

When Lady Jiang, the mother of Jiajing Emperor, arrived Tongzhou, 20km east of Beijing, on 24 October, the Ministry of Rites wanted to receive her as a prince's consort. However, the emperor insisted that she be recognized as the mother of the emperor.[6] Lady Jiang also refused to enter the city as a mere princess.[8] This caused a great deal of protest from officials.[6] The emperor, feeling depressed and pressured to refer to his biological mother as an aunt,[8] even considered abdicating.[8][9] However, a recent graduate of the civil service examination, Zhang Cong,[a] came to his aid with a document called "Questions and Answers on the Great Rites".[9] Despite this, neither the Jiajing Emperor nor Yang Tinghe were willing to back down and they lacked the strength to depose each other. Yang Tinghe was determined to assert his opinion and even removed any official who supported the emperor.[5] He even had Zhang Cong transferred to Nanjing to the southern Ministry of Justice.[10] The situation was eventually resolved through a compromise proposed by Minister of Rites, Mao Cheng. According to this proposal, the Jiajing Emperor's father, mother, and grandmother, Lady Shao, were granted imperial rank through an edict from Empress Dowager Zhang.[8] Finally, after a two-week wait, Lady Jiang was able to enter Beijing and the Forbidden City with imperial honors on 2 November.[9]

The emperor was able to exert his authority over the government.[9] Empress Dowager Zhang refused to acknowledge Lady Jiang's imperial title. During the controversy, Yang Tinghe cited the rejection of the new titles by the Heavens, which was followed by a mysterious fire in the Lady Jiang's palace. In December 1522, Lady Jiang died, and Yang Tinghe declared that only one day of mourning should be observed for her.[8]

1523 – July 1524

[edit]

In 1523, the emperor was unsuccessful in convincing Yang Tinghe and the other grand secretaries to comply.[11] In February 1524, a memorandum from Gui E (桂萼), the bureau secretary in the Nanjing Minstry of Justice, was received by the emperor, supporting his position. The emperor then asked for the opinions of high officials, as was customary. Within a week, 82 negative submissions were collected, signed by approximately 250 officials. Only Gui E, Zhang Cong, Huo Tao (霍韜), and Xiong Jie sided with the emperor, later joined by Fang Xianfu (方獻夫),[10] and influential officials from the provinces, Xi Shu (席書) and Yang Yiqing, who were not affiliated with the power of the scholars of the Hanlin Academy in the capital (the academy was the source of the grand secretaries).[12][b] However, none of them were present in Beijing.[10] In mid-March, the emperor declared that the controversy must be resolved in a way that would protect the imperial lineage and satisfy his need for filial piety. He then began to summon his supporters to Beijing, the most senior of whom was Xi Shu, the vice minister of war in Nanjing.[14]

On 15 March 1524, Yang Tinghe, who was sixty-four years old, resigned due to frustration with the emperor's self-assertion.[15] This caused a heated debate at court, with accusations of factionalism and references to the premature deaths of some of Yang Tinghe's opponents in previous years.[12] As a result of the weakening of the Grand Secretariat, the emperor gained more freedom in personnel matters. This was evident in late April 1524 when Minister of Rites, Wang Jun (汪俊), resigned and died shortly afterwards. The emperor rejected the candidates proposed by the Ministry of Personnel for the vacant post and instead appointed Xi Shu as the new minister of rites.[16]

The emperor's "arbitrary" appointment of the minister sparked a storm of protest. It was argued that, until now, only members of the Hanlin Academy had been appointed as ministers of rites on the recommendation of the Ministry of Personnel. The emperor had disregarded these established rules. In July 1524, Xi Shu's opponents accused him of corruption and incompetence in handling the famine in Huguang. In response, Xi Shu called for a thorough investigation of the charges and defended himself by stating that he had saved a million lives. He also pointed out that many officials were afraid to voice their dissenting opinions, even if they disagreed with the majority.[17]

Meanwhile, the debate had shifted to the issue of building a shrine to honor the emperor's father, which quickly became heated.[16] There was strong disagreement with the emperor's request for the shrine, as well as with the appointment of Xi Shu and the recall of Zhang Cong and Gui E (who were serving in Nanjing) to Beijing. These conflicts ultimately led to the resignation of Yang Tinghe's successor, Senior Grand Secretary Jiang Mian (蔣冕), on 2 June 1524. The emperor accepted the resignation and the shrine was finally completed on 10 July 1524.[18]

Zhang Cong and Gui E arrived in Beijing in late June 1524. Their statements in support of the emperor sparked a storm of protest, with thirty supervisory secretaries and over forty censors signing an indictment against them for spreading false and incorrect opinions. The pair demanded a public debate,[18] and on 13 July, the emperor appointed them to the Hanlin Academy—Zhang Cong and Gui E as chancellors, and Fang Xuanfu as academician reader-in-waiting. This appointment caused a new round of protests from academicians and supervisory secretaries, who argued that careerists who were trying to please the emperor should not be appointed to high offices, but the emperor declared that they were loyal, honest, and qualified. In response, over seventy supervisory secretaries and censors demanded the execution of Zhang Cong and Gui E for misleading the emperor.[19] On 22 July, 36 junior members of the Hanlin Academy resigned in protest, led by Yang Shen, son of Yang Tinghe. As more individual protests emerged, the emperor began imprisoning the instigators.[20]

Crisis of August 1524 and the end of the controversy

[edit]

On 5 August, the Minister of Personnel resigned in protest. On 11 August, the emperor ordered the Ministry of Rites to prepare a program for the worship of Heaven, Earth, and imperial ancestors[20] scheduled for 15 August. He also forbade the use of the word bensheng (natal) in the title of his mother. In the spring of 1524, Zhang Cong and Gui E had pointed out to the emperor that the word bensheng implied he had another mother, an adoptive one. Minister Xi Shu had not yet arrived in Beijing, so the Ministry of Rites was headed by Vice Minister Zhu Xizhou (朱希周). Zhu refused the request to delete the word, arguing that it had been in use for three years since the compromise reached in 1521, when the emperor had recognized the Hongzhi Emperor as his adoptive father. He also argued that the ceremonies could not be changed. Grand Secretaries Mao Ji (毛紀) and Shi Bao (石珤) did not support the emperor.[21] Scholars from the Hanlin Academy and opposition officials in the Censorate and ministries protested the change,[11] which was seen as a disruption of proper ceremonies. As a result, the emperor had eight critics arrested.[21]

On 14 August, the protests reached their peak. Approximately 232 officials, which accounted for about a tenth of the Beijing government staff, remained outside the audience hall at Zuoshun Gate after the morning audience. They knelt for four hours, chanting the names of the Hongwu and Hongzhi emperors.[22] They refused to leave without a written order, but even after it was issued, they did not leave and instead began pounding on the palace doors.[12] The emperor's patience eventually ran out and he ordered the Embroidered Uniform Guard to arrest all of them. He then dismissed both high- and low-ranking officials. Five days later, he had 134 middle-ranking officials[23] beaten, resulting in the death of 17 of them.[12] All participants in the demonstration faced punishment in various forms, such as demotion, transfer outside of Beijing, being sent to the border, or being expelled from the civil service.[23] This event is known as the "Zuoshun Gate Incident".

The ceremony on 15 August was held in accordance with the emperor's wishes. Senior Grand Secretary, Mao Ji, resigned with honor on 23 August and was replaced by Fei Hong (費宏).[23] Fei Hong had skillfully navigated between the emperor and the official opposition during the disputes.[15]

In an effort to explain and justify his position, the emperor tasked Zhang Cong with compiling the Minglun dadian, a collection of arguments supporting the imperial stance. This compilation was completed and published in June of 1528.[24]

After the Zuoshun Gate Incident, there were still some disgruntled opposition members who persisted. However, the emperor was not in favor of conducting witch hunts and only suppressed them reluctantly. On the other hand, he also refused to pardon those who had already been affected.[24] He disagreed with Xi Shu's suggestion of purges under the guise of fighting corruption, stating that the issues of the Zhengde era had already been resolved and further purges were unnecessary.[25]

Consequences

[edit]

Originally a minor disagreement, the controversy gradually gained significance and had significant indirect consequences. Xi Shu, a patron of the Confucian scholar and reformer Wang Yangming, based his arguments on Wang's reasoning during discussions. As a result, the controversy played a role in promoting Wang's teachings. Additionally, the need for discussions involving precedents and old texts led to the development of critical study and interpretation of texts, as well as criticism of the conservative attitudes of the Hanlin Academy. [12]

During the controversy, the Jiajing Emperor fought for independence from the grand secretaries and made decisions based on his own judgment rather than consulting with them or simply confirming their proposals. This was seen by affected scholars as a form of despotism that went against traditional governance practices.[12]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Zhang Cong later (in 1531) changed his name to Zhang Fujing.
  2. ^ The emperor required the backing of officials who were skilled in advocating for him. Zhang Cong fulfilled this role and consequently, he rapidly rose to a prestigious career,[13] initially as the chancellor of the Hanlin Academy and later as the grand secretary. The emperor also selected his other allies for prominent positions; in the 1520s, Gui E, Fang Xianfu, and Yang Yiqing were added to the Grand Secretariat.

References

[edit]

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^ Dardess (2016), p. 7.
  2. ^ Geiss (1998), p. 441.
  3. ^ a b Goodrich & Fang (1976), p. 316.
  4. ^ Dardess (2016), p. 8.
  5. ^ a b c Geiss (1998), pp. 444–445.
  6. ^ a b c d Dardess (2016), pp. 9–10.
  7. ^ Geiss (1998), p. 442.
  8. ^ a b c d e Geiss (1998), pp. 446–447.
  9. ^ a b c d Dardess (2016), p. 11.
  10. ^ a b c Dardess (2016), p. 15.
  11. ^ a b Geiss (1998), p. 448.
  12. ^ a b c d e f Geiss (1998), p. 449.
  13. ^ Dardess (2016), p. 13.
  14. ^ Dardess (2016), p. 16.
  15. ^ a b Dardess (2016), p. 17.
  16. ^ a b Dardess (2016), p. 18.
  17. ^ Dardess (2016), p. 19.
  18. ^ a b Dardess (2016), p. 20.
  19. ^ Dardess (2016), p. 21.
  20. ^ a b Dardess (2016), p. 22.
  21. ^ a b Dardess (2016), p. 23.
  22. ^ Dardess (2016), p. 25.
  23. ^ a b c Dardess (2016), p. 26.
  24. ^ a b Dardess (2016), pp. 27–28.
  25. ^ Dardess (2016), p. 29.

Works cited

[edit]
  • Dardess, John W (2016). Four Seasons: A Ming Emperor and His Grand Secretaries in Sixteenth-Century China. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 9781442265608.
  • Geiss, James (1998). "The Chia-ching reign, 1522-1566". In Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis C (eds.). The Cambridge History of China. Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty 1368-1644, Part 1 (1st ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 440–510. ISBN 0521243335.
  • Goodrich, L. Carington; Fang, Chaoying (1976). Dictionary of Ming Biography, 1368-1644. Vol. 1, A–L. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-03801-1.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Great_Rites_Controversy&oldid=1285050241"